Research On Religion » Russia

Jason Klocek on Religious Conflict and Repression

tonygill — Sun, 02 Apr 2017 08:00:35 +0000

Why do political leaders repress religious groups and how might their actions be related to instances of religious conflict within society? Jason Klocek, a doctoral candidate in the Department of Political Science at the University of California – Berkeley, examines this relationship and reports on findings that he and his co-author, Peter Henne (University of Vermont), discovered in a forthcoming article in the Journal of Conflict Resolution. After talking about his wild experiences in Turkmenistan, Jason details the state of the scholarly literature when it comes to understanding the repression of religious organizations. He notes that much of the previous scholarship has argued that religious repression prompts religiously-motivated violence, but that a new set of scholars are also observing a reverse causality wherein religious unrest in a society motivates state leaders to crack down on religious groups, including ones not directly involved in any conflict. While acknowledging the endogeneity of such a relationship — wherein conflict motivates repression and vice versa — he and Prof. Henne find statistical evidence that the appearance of religious unrest in a society is often what provokes a variety of tighter restrictions on religious groups and activity. Using data from Jonathan Fox’s Religion & State Dataset, they test their hypotheses that pick up on some of the research done by William Cavanaugh. That latter scholarship emphasizes that state rulers often rely upon a “myth of religious violence” often dating back deep in history to justify crackdown on groups they see challenging their authority or ruling position. Jason provides a couple illustrative examples of where this has happened recently, including in Russia (with respect to unrest in Chechnya) and China (referencing the uprising of Uighurs in the western portion of the country). Tony notes a few other cases such as how Padre Hidalgo in Mexico and the Taiping Rebellion in China are often viewed as instances of religious mobilization that could cause worry to incumbent leaders. Jason then provides us a summary of his dissertation research wherein he attempts to understand why religious conflicts are so much more difficult to resolve than non-religious ones. Whereas past scholars (including Jason’s mentor and frequent RoR guest Prof. Ron Hassner) have emphasized the religious side of the conflict coin, Jason notes that secular rulers also form intransigent images of religious groups and leaders that cause problems when it comes to negotiating settlements. He illustrates this with the case of British counterinsurgency in Cyprus during the 1940s and ’50s and reveals some interesting empirical findings he discovered in dusty archives. We finish with Jason’s reflections on what he has learned over the course of his studies. Recorded: March 24, 2017.

Peter Henne’s bio at the University of Vermont, Department of Political Science (Prof. Henne is Jason’s co-author on the article discussed here).

The Myth of Religious Violence, by William Cavanaugh (mentioned in podcast).

Journal of Conflict Resolution (institutional access required).

Jonathan Fox’s Religion & State Dataset at The ARDA.

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Is Religious Freedom Good for Growth? A Panel Discussion

tonygill — Sun, 05 Feb 2017 09:00:40 +0000

Can religious freedom promote economic growth in the long- and/or short-term? This was the general question posed to a number of scholars on November 15, 2016 at a symposium entitled “Religious Freedom and the Common Good” hosted by the Religious Freedom Project at the Berkeley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs (Georgetown University). Wow! That’s a mouthful! Brian Grim (Religious Freedom & Business Foundation) moderates a conversation with Ilan Alon (University of Agder), Timur Kuran (Duke University), Rachel McCleary (Harvard University and Hoover Institution), and your own lovable host Anthony Gill (University of Washington). The discussion that develops is broad-ranging, covering countries as far-flung as Guatemala and China, and eras from the Ottoman Empire to contemporary Russia. Anthony Gill asserts that religious liberty is good for long-term economic growth, citing an example from the Netherlands in the 17th century, but also cautions that efforts to impose religious freedom from the top-down can cause conflict in the short-run, and that a strong culture of tolerance is needed for religious freedom and economic freedom to work conjointly. Timur Kuran shares these views noting that many skilled entrepreneurs leave places such as Pakistan in the search for more spiritually free environments and this harms their growth potential (while benefiting those countries where migrants move t0). At various points throughout the conversation he uses examples from the Ottoman Empire and contemporary Turkey to show how laws on religious behavior and towards religious minorities can have important economic impacts. Rachel McCleary offers a competing view noting an important difference between “believing” and “belonging.” Whereas certain religious beliefs may be conducive to economic growth, she notes that religious institutions either have no or a negative effect on economic growth and reducing political corruption. She cites her extensive research in Guatemala to support this claim. Ilan Alon sees both positive and negative effects on economic growth created by religious freedom and brings his experience in China and Norway to bear on this topic. Brian Grim peppers the discussion with a number of his own observations how particular companies such as the Kellogg Corporation have promoted religious freedom at various points in time. It is also noted that the Quakers were great at making chocolate and founded Cadbury. Near the end of the panel discussion, Anthony Gill makes a controversial point that bourbon is better than scotch as the participants field a number of questions from audience members. Recorded: November 15, 2016.

RELATED LINKS

Video presentation of the panel at the Religious Freedom Project (Berkeley Center for Religion, Peace, & World Affairs).

Religious Freedom and the Common Good Symposium webpage.

Coming soon: Religious Freedom Institute. (The same project, but now in institutional form!)

Brian Grim’s bio at the Religious Freedom & Business Foundation.

Ilan Alon’s bio at the University of Agder.

Timur Kuran’s bio at Duke University.

Rachel McCleary’s bio at the Hoover Institution.

Anthony Gill’s bio at the University of Washington.

Explanation of bourbon vs scotch and definitive proof of which one is better.

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Matthew Derrick on the Geography of the Umma (Encore Presentation)

tonygill — Mon, 28 Nov 2016 06:35:24 +0000

As the staff at Research on Religion takes a short break to upgrade some equipment and catch up on other duties, please enjoy this “best of…” episode from our archives.

Is the Islamic notion of “the umma” — i.e., the general community of Muslims — consistent with the modern concept of the nation-state and territorial sovereignty? We discuss this issue with Prof. Matthew Derrick, an assistant professor of geography at Humboldt State University, and author of “Containing the Umma?: Islam and the Territorial Question” that recently appeared in the Interdisciplinary Journal of Research on Religion (see link below). Reacting to scholars such as Berenard Lewis, Samuel Huntington, and other scholars associated with the “cultural turn in geography,” Prof. Derrick argues that territory remains an important defining concept in how people organize their life even among religious believers who belong to a transnational faith. Our discussion starts out with a short detour to Tatarstan where Matthew has conducted extensive fieldwork and he lays out what is unusual about that area within Russia. He also corrects Tony on his misunderstanding of tartar sauce. We then move on to a definition of “the umma,” an essential theological concept within Islam that represents the community of all believers. This raises the question of whether a transnational faith can be squared with the territorial state that dominates our world system. Matthew takes us on a tour of the issue of territorialism and how it evolved, with the Peace of Westphalia marking an important milestone in how we conceive of nation states in the modern world. Tony presses Matthew on his more ideational notion of statehood that revolves around issues of sovereignty (e.g., cuius regio eius religio) as composed to a more political economic approach to defining territory based upon the ability to tax a population. This discussion takes us askance of the religious question for awhile, but it is very important in understanding how modern scholars view the compatability or incompatability of Islam with modern territorial states. Matthew reviews the thinking of Samuel Huntington and Bernard Lewis who do not see Islam as being compatible with our modern state system and then shares his critiques of these two scholars bringing us to a discussion of how European imperialism carved borders into the Islamic world. We investigate the rise of pan-Arabism and pan-Islamism, including the attempts by thinkers such as Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani and Sayyid Qutb to craft a general Islamic identity. Examples of how these attempts have fared are examined including work by the Muslim Brotherhood, the Pashtun movement within Pakistan, the nationalism that seems apparent in the Arab Spring and how Iran has supported Armenia in its conflict with Azerbaijan. We close by revisiting the area of Tatarstan that has appeared to be able to manage well its regional territory within Russia despite its ethnic and religious pluralism. Recorded: January 25, 2013.

“Containing the Umma? Islam and the Territorial Question,” by Matthew Derrick in the Interndisciplinary Journal of Research on Religion (free with registation).

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Eileen Kane on the Russian Hajj

tonygill — Sun, 07 Feb 2016 09:00:51 +0000

During the latter half of the 19th century, when industrialization led to the expansion of railroads and the increase in efficient steamships, travel to Mecca for the hajj became much more affordable for the sizable Muslim population living in Russian territory. Prof. Eileen Kane — an associate professor of history at Connecticut College — discusses the attempts by tsarist and Soviet Russia to manage this pilgrimage for both geopolitical and economic advantage, and how Russian Muslims responded to these efforts. While this is a little known aspect of Russian history, it has important ramifications for how migrations of religious individuals are viewed in our contemporary world.

We begin with Prof. Kane discussing how she came upon such a relatively esoteric topic. She notes that she was in college during the breakup of the Soviet Union and this opened up a door to historians who had previously focused on the Slavic history of Russia to realize that there were substantial ethnic and religious minorities (often of sizable proportion) living within the borders of the USSR. This then became fertile ground for historians seeking to discover new things about old countries, and Eileen reminds us that although we think Slavs are in Russia and Muslims are in the Middle East, there are actually a very large number of Muslims outside the Arab world, including in former Russian territories. Of the 15 nation-states that resulted from the break up of the USSR, six of them have majority Muslim populations.

We then take a journey back to the middle of the 19th century and Prof. Kane explains why she chose to bookend her study from roughly 1840 to 1930. It was during this era that industrialization was making it more cost effective to travel via railroad and steamship, thus making the hajj (the pilgrimage to Mecca that all Muslims are asked to perform once in their life) a reality for religious individuals living in “far away” lands. Her study concludes in 1930 when the Great Global Depression (followed soon by World War II) created significant hardships in travel. She briefly reviews what the hajj is and how efforts to convert and pacify Muslims during the middle part of the 1800s met with resistance and wasn’t all that effective of a strategy for tsarist Russia. We also note the importance that European imperial expansion played during this time period, as the Middle East was becoming an area ripe for foreign influence given the decay of the Ottoman Empire. Russians certainly wanted to play an important role in the politics of this region given its strategic significance.

The next portion of our discussion examines how the tsarist regime attempted to control the seasonal migration of Muslims to the Holy Land. Prof. Kane lists several things that the Russians tried to do to facilitate travel including subsidizing train and ship transit, issuing special passports, and opening consulates in Jeddah and other areas to help travelers who were experiencing difficulties. It was reasoned that if this pilgrimage was going to be made, the Russians should have some say in directing it given that there was also a fear that travelers abroad would bring back diseases and radical ideas to Russia. Eileen details the presence of “disinfection facilities” on the journey home in an attempt by Russians to weed out cholera and other diseases. Prof. Kane notes that there was a great deal of “trial and error” learning in how to manage the pilgrimage routes based upon the experience of local officials in various villages along the way.

Prof. Kane then explains the two primary motivations for the Russians to manage the hajj routes. First, since Russia had lost a lot of revenue as people moved to North America in the late 1800s, there was a strong incentive to use these pilgrims as a source of tsarist revenue, albeit it was much less than was hoped. Second, with Europe expanding in the Middle East as the Ottoman Empire began to falter, the Russians also wanted to stake their presence in the region and facilitating migration routes was one way they believed they could do this. We also discuss how Muslims reacted to the overtures of the Orthodox Russians. While some in the elite saw it as a benevolent action on the part of the tsar, many intellectuals and non-elite Muslims viewed it as manipulative and often had problems with some of the tactics used such as the “disinfection facilities” there were sometimes staffed by women, an affront to some Muslim men. Our conversation also includes a section on the Soviet strategy, which was relatively similar to what the previous tsars did with the exception being that the Bolsheviks were atheists and thought religion would inevitably fade away. With the disruptions caused by the 1905 and 1917 Revolutions and the global depression causing problems in travel, concern over managing the hajj faded in policy importance. We close with some of Eileen’s thoughts on what surprised her during the course of her research, and how what happened in the past can inform our policy towards immigrants today. Recorded: January 22, 2106.

Russian Hajj: Empire and the Pilgrimage to Mecca, by Eileen Kane.

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Philip Jenkins on Religion & World War I

tonygill — Sun, 17 Aug 2014 08:00:54 +0000

Please visit our extensive archives with over 200 episodes on a wide variety of topics, and “like” us over at our Facebook Fan Page for weekly updates and other tidbits.

Was “The Great War” a holy war? Noted historian Philip Jenkins, Distinguished Professor of History at Baylor University, joins us to discuss the spiritual overtones and undertones of World War I and that conflict’s impact on our contemporary religious landscape. While most historians have focused on secular and materialist explanations for the war’s outbreak and progression, Prof. Jenkins points out the blind spot his profession has had to the spiritual dimensions of the “war to end all wars.”

We begin our discussion with a general survey of World War I’s causes and why historians have emphasized materialistic explanations. It doesn’t take long before Philip is relaying the dense theological imagery and language that set the tone for this war. We also discuss the general spiritual milieu of the times, noting that even though industrialization and urbanization were churning along at a rapid pace, and secular ideologies were all the rage, it was a time of great spiritual ferment. Particularly in Germany and Russia, there were strong messianic tones to the language of politics and military affairs. It was a time of a “culture war” that pitted secular critics against state churches, and orthodox theologies against newer and more esoteric faiths, such as the theosophy. While scholars have overlooked this, Philip notes that the evidence for this was hiding in plain sight. He notes how many important figures of the time (e.g., Generals Ludendorff and von Moltke) were heavily influenced by spiritualism, be it more traditional Christianity or notions of the occult.

Our conversation then turns to the war itself and how religious language and imagery was used. We look at the constant discussion of angels and “God’s guiding hand,” perhaps best represented by the story of the Angel of Mons and how that developed. Philip points out how a major German offensive was named Operation Michael, after the biblical archangel. The art of the time was replete with winged women or war heroes, as well as crucifixion scenes that depicted fallen soldiers. We also examine apocalyptic imagery and the recurrence of Armageddon themes, particularly with the British successfully taking the Holy Land in the Battle of Meggido. Philip also explains that even though such religious depictions ran across all economic classes and were quite popular, political and church leaders tried at times to tamp it down for a variety of sensitivities. For example, calling the war a “crusade” was seen as counter-productive in attempting to woo Muslim soldiers into fighting for the Allies.

The last portion of our conversation discusses the lasting impacts of WWI on the global religious landscape. We start with Philip explaining a particularly intriguing phrase from his book — “The sleep of religion brings forth monster.” (Prof. Jenkins notes that this is a play on Francisco Goya’s famous line about the sleep of reason.) He points out that the two nations that used religious imagery most intensely during the war — Germany and Russia — gave birth to two of the most secular and horrific ideologies just decades later in the form of Nazism and Soviet communism. One of the continuities between these two eras was the anti-Semitic tone of the ideological rhetoric. This in turn leads us to a discussion of how the fortunes of Judaism were changed with the Balfour Declaration, and how the collapse of the Islamic caliphate (in the form of the Ottoman Empire) influenced events to this day. We also touch upon how global Christianity, most notably in Africa, was given a large boost during the WWI era as the influenza pandemic that spread around the world prompted prophetic healing movements and how this helped to indigenize Christian proselytizing.

We finish off the interview with some of Philip’s thoughts on the parallels between today and the past. He sees similar patterns, particularly with respect to the often-ignored conflict in the South China sea and warns about “sleepwalking into catastrophe.” Recorded: August 6, 2014.

(Note: The interview was cut a bit short as we had some difficult connecting via Baylor’s phone lines. It was the first day of individual football ticket sales and the phone lines were inundated. Sic ’em Bears!)

Philip Jenkin’s Wikipedia page (just in case he is curious).

The Great & Holy War: How World War I Became a Religious Crusade, by Philip Jenkins.

Laying Down the Sword: Why We Can’t Ignore the Bible’s Violent Verses, by Philip Jenkins.

The Next Christendom: The Coming of Global Christianity, by Philip Jenkins.

Jesus Wars: How Four Patriarchs, Three Queens, and Two Emperors Decided What Christians Would Believe for the Next 1,500 Years, by Philip Jenkins.

The Lost History of Christianity: The Thousand-Year Golden Age of the Church in the Middle East, Africa, and Asia, by Philip Jenkins.

Visit Prof. Jenkins’s Amazon.com page for additional titles.

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Ani Sarkissian on Religious Liberty in the Post-Soviet World

tonygill — Mon, 11 Mar 2013 08:00:46 +0000

Help us get to 400 likes by May on our Facebook Fan Page, where you can see your host — Tony Gill — wearing a traditional Kyrgyzstan hat whilst in his normal cowboy garb!

The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 heralded what many thought would be a new era of liberty in a region of the world that has known little freedom for most of its history. However, many of the new regimes that emerged from the Soviet rubble have slipped back into autocracy. We review these political developments and what it has meant for religious freedom in the region with Prof. Ani Sarkissian, an assistant professor of political science at Michigan State University. Our discussion begins with some reflections on the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and the decade of optimism that it ushered in to the former Soviet world. Prof. Sarkissian then discusses the “creeping authoritarianism” that has beset the region over the past decade or so, focusing on Russia as a classic example of what is occuring in other regions while also highlighting some of the differences in regime types that have emerged. Ani mentions that while most scholars have spent time examining how elections and party systems have been manipulated by aspiring autocrats, looking at how groups in civil society — namely religious organizations — are treated is also a first indication of where the government is headed. She reviews four different patterns of church-state relations that impact religious liberty: 1) states repressing all religions; 2) states repressing all but one faith tradition; 3) states repressing some religions but not others; and 4) states who appear to have wide-ranging religious freedom. To explain why such variation has emerged, Ani focuses both on factors affecting the religious composition of society, the nature of the authoritarian regime, and the historical church-state relations that existed prior to the Soviet Union and that emerged during Soviet domination. She reviews a typical country in each of these categories letting us know what is happening in countries such as Uzbekistan, Russia, Kyrgyzstan, and Albania. Tony notes that he recently met with a Kyrgy delegation interested in implementing religious freedom policies and that he was given a traditional Kyrgy hat that he has to this day. (A picture of Tony wearing this hat with his favorite Western waistcoat can be viewed on our Facebook Fan Page.) We finish with Ani’s thoughts about the future of the region and whether there is reason for optimism or pessimism. Recorded: March 6, 2013.

RELATED LINKS

Ani Sarkissian’s home page at Michigan State University.

Competitive Authoritarianism: Hybrid Regimes after the Cold War, by Steven Levitsky and Lucan Way (mentioned during the podcast).

The Political Origins of Religious Liberty, by Anthony Gill (mentioned during the podcast with some prodding).

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Monica Toft on Religion, Terrorism, and Civil War.

Daniel Philpott on Religious Resurgence & Democratization.

Kevin Cooney on Religion and Rule of Law in China.

Allen Hertzke on Religious Liberty.

Matthew Derrick on the Geography of the Umma

tonygill — Mon, 04 Mar 2013 09:00:36 +0000

“Containing the Umma? Islam and the Territorial Question,” by Matthew Derrick in the Interndisciplinary Journal of Research on Religion (free with registation).

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Allison Pond on Being a Mormon Missionary

tonygill — Mon, 30 Jan 2012 09:00:11 +0000

What is it like to be a young missionary in a foreign country that is undergoing major religious and legal changes? Allison Pond, an editorial writer at the Deseret News (Utah) and formerly with the Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life, recounts her days as a missionary for the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints in Russia from 1997 to 1998. Mormons are well-known for their missionizing activity around the world, so we explore the preparation, training, experience, and results of such missionizing work. Allison begins by describing her spiritual upbringing in the LDS Church and reveals that she never thought of mission work until volunteering for a youth program while at BYU. She then discusses the process for being selected as an LDS missionary, which includes an interview with a local bishop. We inquire as to whether her work teaching English in Moscow played a role in her being selected for her to missionize in Russia. Following this, we look at how Mormons, who are mostly young adults at the time, are trained in the Missionary Training Center and what goes on during the first few weeks in the field. We discuss language training as well as preparation for hostile situations. Allison then tells us what it was actually like to be in the field, especially the anxiety she felt on the first day and how this dissipated over time. The typical routine of a missionary is discussed and we also focus on what is like to be a female missionary, considering that roughly 80% of all Mormon missionaries are young men. We then discuss the changing religious scene in Russia and what complications that may have played in the mission trip. Russia, which experienced the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, initially allowed a great degree of religous freedom leading to a rapid influx of foreign religions. By 1997, the Russian Orthodox Church was pushing back with intensified rhetoric against foreign missionaries and with legal changes that made it difficult for such folks to operate. Allison closes with some reflections about what she learned while on her sojourn and provides a bit of “looking back” advice for people considering missionary work, be it for the LDS Church or any other faith. Recorded: January 6, 2012

RELATED LINKS

Allison Pond’s biography at the Deseret News.

Allison Pond’s “Houses of Worship” column for Wall Street Journal (subscription required) and reprinted in the Deseret News.

Mormons in America at The Deseret News.

Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life.

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Monica Toft on Religion, Terrorism, and Civil War

tonygill — Mon, 05 Sep 2011 08:00:38 +0000

A week before the 10th anniversay of the September 11th terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, Prof. Monica Duffy Toft of Harvard University’s Kennedy School of Government joins us to discuss what we have learned about religiously-motivated violence over the past decade. This podcast represents our second discussion on the book God’s Century: Resurgent Religion and Global Politics (co-authored with Daniel Philpott and Timothy Shah), the first being focused on the role of religion in promoting democracy. Our attention here turns to why religious groups and individuals would be prompted to violence. The discussion is far-ranging, looking not only at Islamic terrorism, but includes an examination of the Irish Republican Army in Northern Ireland, Hindu nationalism in India, and the influence of Buddhism on the Tamil Tigers in Sri Lanka. Prof. Toft provides definition of terrorism and “informal violence,” the latter which encompasses such “spontaneous” events as ethn0-religious riots. She argues that looking at, and including, informal violence in the analysis of terrorism is crucial for understanding the phenomenon of religiously-motivated violence. Prof. Toft lays out her explanation for the increasing salience of religious violence, focusing both on institutional factors such as how states regulate religious organizations and the importance of political theologies. The confluence of these institutional and ideological factors helps explain why religious terrorism and civil war has increased since the 1970s. Our conversation also considers the recent rampage of Anders Behring Breivik in Norway. We also discuss the role of religion in civil wars such as Sudan, Yugoslavia and other parts of the world. Prof. Toft finishes the interview with her thoughts on whether religious violence is likely to subside in the future. Recorded: August 29, 2011.

RELATED LINKS

Monica Duffy Toft’s website at Harvard University, Kennedy School of Government.

Initiative on Religion in International Affairs at the Belfer Center (Harvard University).

God’s Century: Resurgent Religion and Global Politics, by Monica Duffy Toft, Daniel Philpott, and Timothy Samuel Shah.

Securing the Peace: The Durable Settlement of Civil Wars, by Monica Duffy Toft.

The Geography of Ethnic Conflict: Identity, Interests, and Territory, by Monica Duffy Toft.

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Roger Finke on Religious Persecution

tonygill — Mon, 03 Jan 2011 09:00:52 +0000

Roger Finke — professor of sociology and religious studies at Penn State University and director of The Association of Religion Data Archives — takes us on a journey around the globe to discover how and why religious persecution arises in some nations but not others. Based on his book The Price of Freedom Denied (co-authored with Brian Grim), Prof. Finke makes the argument that religious liberty is a vital component of all civil liberties in society. He makes the case that small violations of religious freedom (often in the form of seemingly innocuous regulations) can open the door to an erosion of other freedoms and invite various forms of religious persecution. We detail some of these regulations focusing on the importance of registration requirements for religious groups. Also, Roger challenges an interpretation of Samuel Huntington’s “clash of civilizations” theses, claiming that it is not the presence of two different religious cultures within a nation that automatically gives rise to conflict, but rather the various laws that regulate different faith traditions that sets the table for whether or not conflict (and persecution) will arise. We pepper our discussion with examples from France, Russia, China, Japan, Iran, Nigeria and the United States. In closing, we discuss one of Roger’s most valuable contributions to academia — The ARDA. Far from being just a clearinghouse for religious databases, this website offers the public the opportunity to explore religion around the world in a remarkably user-friendly interface. Listeners are encouraged to give it a try! Recorded: December 16, 2010.

Listeners are asked to contact the host to let him know you are listening and to share your comments and suggestions about the podcast. tgill (at) uw (dot) edu

RELATED LINKS

Roger Finke’s website at Penn State University.

The Price of Freedom Denied: Religious Persecution and Conflict in the Twenty-First Century by Brian J. Grim and Roger Finke.

The Association of Religion Data Archives (ARDA) at Penn State University. Try it out!

International Religious Freedom Reports (at the U.S. Department of State).

A World Survey of Religion and the State by Jonathan Fox.

The Political Origins of Religious Liberty by Anthony Gill.

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