Research On Religion » mendicant orders

James Felak on the Counter-Reformation

tonygill — Sun, 22 Oct 2017 08:00:29 +0000

As we wind down our seven-episode series on the Protestant Reformation, we give the “other side” a chance to make their historical case. Prof. James Felak, a professor of history at the University of Washington (and frequent RoR guest), sits down with Tony to discuss the Catholic response to Luther’s protest. Known popularly as the “Counter-Reformation,” Dr. Felak notes that it really should be termed the Catholic Reformation as we note how Luther, Calvin, Zwingli and others broke with the Church in a schismatic movement. We start the discussion with a look at the religious and political landscape leading up to Luther’s challenge. Fifteenth century Europe was characterized by three key factors that conditioned the Reformation, Felak argues. First was the increasing strength of secular kingdoms relative to the Roman Catholic Church, which prompts a variety of power and financial struggles between the crown(s) and the popes. Growing corruption within the Church presented the second challenge to Christianity during this century, which leads to the third factor — indulgences. Out of curiosity, Tony asks when the Catholic Church began to be called the “Catholic Church,” rather than just the Church given that Catholicism is now used as a term of contradistinction to Protestantism. James mentions that he wonders the same thing too when teaching courses on Christian history, and we more or less agree that the term Catholic Church is put into greater usage in the 16th century. (Listeners are encouraged to weigh in on this question.)

We then move to the early 1500s and the “immediate” (by late medieval standards) reaction of the Vatican to Luther. Tony poses a counterfactual to his historian guest, asking what would the Christian timeline looked like had the Holy See just ignored Martin Luther. There were two popes involved in pushing back against Luther, and times of leadership transition can be difficult. Prof. Felak responds that the Protestant Reformation was a “slow train moving” and it was likely to happen at some point. We talk about how Johann Eck became involved in debates with Luther and how Luther’s pamphleteering left the Vatican no choice but to respond. The printing press made ignoring the issue very difficult. We review the events of the Diet of Worms and then springboard forward to the Council of Trent that sets the “Counter-Reformation” in motion. James points out that Rome was really responding to at least five “reformations” over the first half of the sixteenth century, only one of which was Luther. This included movements spurred on by Zwingli, Calvin, Arminians, other radical reformers, and the breakaway English Church. The Council of Trent — which occurred over several decades (and James explains why) — initiated a two-prong response which was to, first, reform the institutional Church, and second, to answer a variety of doctrinal challenges to the faith. As for the first, there was greater emphasis placed on educating the clergy via rigorous seminary training, incentivize bishops to preach in their own dioceses, and ensure subsequent popes chosen had a strong moral character. There was also a movement to promoting religious orders, which we talk about later. As for the doctrinal pushback, the Catholic Church reaffirmed the seven sacraments, the doctrine of purgatory, and intellectual reasoning regarding the issue of “faith alone or good works.” James spends time to explain the Catholic view of faith and works.

The conversation veers towards a discussion of the religious orders that were promoted to respond to these new institutional and theological challenges. The Jesuits were the most famous of he orders to arise at this time, but Prof. Felak documents a number of other ones, including the shoeless (discalced) Carmelites. He puts this in context of the older orders that emerged centuries before (e.g., Franciscans) and notes the new orders were much more engaged in the world and proselytizing than the earlier ones, including a renewed dedication to education of the clergy and laity. James brings up folks such as Charles Borromeo and Teresa of Avila. Tony asks about the Inquisition, and James responds by pointing out there were four distinct inquisitions including one prior to the Reformation (the Medieval Reformation), the Roman, Spanish, and Portuguese. The latter two had a more political flavor as the Iberian peninsula was not dramatically touched by Protestant reformers and these campaigns were run by kings, not clergy. We finish with some of James’s personal thoughts on how the Reformation affected Christianity and the Catholic Church, as well as how the Reformation has been viewed over the past five centuries. He shares an interesting tale of being in a Seattle bookstore and his thoughts on Lutherans as compared to other Protestant denominations. Recorded: October 6, 2017.

Gary Richardson on Religion & Craft Guilds in the Middle Ages

tonygill — Sun, 02 Nov 2014 09:00:06 +0000

Economic historians have long studied and examined the importance of medieval craft guilds on the economic development of Europe. But what importance, if any, did religion play in the formation and maintenance of these professional organizations? Dr. Gary Richardson, professor of economics at the University of California – Irvine, explains that religious belief and ritual were crucial components of guilds in the 14th through 16th century (and much later in many Catholic countries).

Prof. Richardson, who is known for his research on 19th and 20th century banking crises, begins by explaining how he came to become interested in medieval guilds as a graduate student. More importantly, he discusses how he came to include religion in his analysis. While examining primary documents related to 14th century guilds, he noted that a majority of these documents were devoted to religious issues and themes. While some scholars in the humanities have known this for some time, economists studying the topic largely ignored these writings in favor of the slim portion of the documents devoted to what one might consider more typical economic content (e.g., issues on physical goods output). Gary had a hunch that this extensive discussion of religion was more than just casual, and may have played an important function in the organization of professional groups.

Following his hunch, Gary discovered that many of these guilds originated from prayer societies. It was common for local groups of individuals to gather and pray for salvation and the souls of friends and relatives who were deceased. In an age when the doctrine of purgatory was widely accepted, such prayers held great importance to individuals as witnessed by the significant amount of resources that people would devote to ensuring salvation. Not surprisingly, since certain industries tended to be located in the same place in town for practical reasons — e.g., blacksmiths would all exist in one area to concentrate the smoke and noise (a medieval form of “zoning”) — it was common for people engaged in the same occupation to gather together for worship and prayer. Religious social gatherings would likely include discussion of professional activities and the collective action created for religious purposes naturally made it easier for members of the same profession to coordinate their more secular business dealings.

We spend some time discussing what guilds back in the Middle Ages did and how they helped to preserve the reputational quality of the industry. Gary uses the manufacture of pewter in London as a classic example of how craftsmen needed to preserve their reputation. While most pewter of the time contained lead and would tarnish after a certain time, London pewter was known for its high quality and resistance to tarnish. Instead of using lead, these pewter makers used tin and a few other alloys to create a highly desired product, albeit one that was a bit more costly to make. However, since London pewter commanded a higher price on the market, individual manufacturers had an incentive to sneak in lead to their product so as to maximize their profits. When such “cheating” became known, the reputation of all pewter makers tended to suffer. Thus, the guild had to devise ways to monitor and punish individual manufacturers who added lead to their product

Religion served as a powerful means of dissuading individuals from cheating. First, we learn that it extended the benefits that accrue from cooperation into the afterlife. While cheating for short-term gain in the present is tempting, losing the prayers for one’s soul while in purgatory discouraged people from cheating in the present. Second, the social networking that occurred in weekly religious gatherings and contributions to regular pageants, plays, and processions also helped guild members monitor each other’s commitment. Gary also discusses how the Black Death changed the dynamic of this arrangement, making religious cooperation under the threat of a “random” early death all the more worrisome for individual guild members. We finish by talking about how the Protestant Reformation (in continental Europe and England) changed the incentive calculations and led religion to become less connected to craft guilds over time. Recorded: October 28, 2014